August 30, 2016
The following are class notes taken during Professor Purvi Parikh’s Modernity and the Death of God.
16 08 30
Religion is acknowledgement of a guiding entity separate from that of the individual, be it a collective soul, nature, God, gods, goddesses, idols, or doctrines.
Hi! I enjoyed learning about Religions of India last year with you and decided to declare a Religion Studies minor, which is why I am taking this class. I am a Media & Communications major and hope to incorporate this knowledge into my future work as a journalist and documentarian. — ███ Littrell
16 09 01
Assumptions of modernity:
Modernity has a long history of being defined in different ways:
Kant’s idea of immaturity relates complacency with doctrine.
16 09 06
Religion:
Approaches to religion:
16 09 08
Conceptual, normative, and explanatory issues complicate religion.
Protestant Reformation:
(16th century)
Dichotomies:
Secularism is necessary for direct-access democracy. There are two forms:
- Common ground—based on beliefs.
- Independent ethic—based on reason.
Seek the overlapping consensus.
Citizenship: equality, freedom, individualism.
16 09 13
Secularism does not ensure tolerance.
16 09 15
Secularization and religious revival.
Secularization Theory:
- Structural differentiation
- Privatization of religion
- Decline of religion
Rise of new religious movements in the 1980s.
De-privatization of religion.
Public role of religion in modernity:
- Start new debates.
- Take public stands.
- Critique modern values.
- Don’t impose norms or agendas.
- Mobilize on the basis of issues.
- Outcome dense matter. (?)
16 09 22
Talal Asad asserts that religion is constantly changing and is an important part of public debate, contrary to popular secular belief.
16 09 27
Asad asserts that human rights are inherently connected to civil rights.
16 09 29
Sabr (صَبْرٌ): Endurance, perseverance, persistence.
Agency, freedom, resistance to subordination.
16 10 04
Perspectives on agency:
- Conventional: Capacity to act from one’s will in the absence of authority.
- Saba Mahmood: Capacity for action enabled by subordination.
16 10 06
- Peace of Westphalia (1648)—The result of warring among Christians brought state sovereignty and religious freedom.
- Ottoman Empire (1299-1922)—The decline of the Ottomans led to English state recognition through secular statehood.
- Treaty of Versailles (1919)—Developed nation-states and the notion of the minority.
16 10 13
The Impossibility of Religious Freedom:
Lived religion, religious vs secular, public vs private, dogma, pluralism, mainstream vs personal, thought vs action, orthodoxy vs orthopraxy, first amendment, high vs low iconography, credibility, authority.
16 10 18
Religious freedom is impossible because it would require a universal definition of religion.
16 11 03
16 11 08
- Wendy Brown—Tolerance is not freedom
- Depoliticization, personal ethic vs political discourse, post-9/11
- Substituting emotional vocabulary for political problems (?)
School
March 1, 2016
Edward Snowden broke the law. He broke the ethical code of his employer, government contractor Booz Allen Hamilton, as well as the National Security Agency, for whom he was working under contract. He leaked secrets that cost him his personal freedom to assure the freedom of the general public. Were his actions justified? Though Snowden was disloyal to his company, his ultimate duty was to serve the citizens of the United States, which he did successfully by informing on issues of privacy. Accountability is key here. The federal government is accountable to the state government, the state to local governments, and all ultimately to the people of the United States. While this concept is not quite so linear in actuality, it is clear to see that citizens rest on the bottom of the breakdown—or
perhaps the middle of the web—meaning everyone is accountable to the public in some form or another. Political Scientist Donald F. Kettl brings up an important point, which is “Who is to watch the watchers? […] There is no absolute standard for accountability, and a large number of hands tussle over what it ought to look like.” While no absolute standard exists, representative democracy does cater to we the people and it would be impossible to make an informed vote if information were being withheld, as in the case of Snowden. Snowden’s actions were completely justified and indeed professionally ethical due to his ultimate goal of serving the public and watching the watchers by keeping the triad of governmental branches in check.
Professors Cox, Buck, and Morgan quote Verne B. Lewis, asserting that “The ideal of democracy is that the desires of the people, no matter how they are arrived at or how unwise they may be, should control the actions of the government.” How can the desires of the people be wholly expressed with the fear of violated privacy? At minute 00:38:09 of the documentary Citizenfour, Snowden covers himself with a blanket to block the view of potentially snooping image-capture devices. Journalist Glenn Greenwald remarks he has been bitten by the paranoia bug and is disturbed by the capabilities of modern surveillance technologies. In the Hong Kong hotel room, the people being filmed acknowledged that
everything said between them would eventually become public record—but what of everyone else? What of protest planners, business leaders, ideological dissenters? Even the kid updating her Instagram in the local coffee shop deserves privacy.
What is truly immoral about the events leading up to the Snowden leaks are the lies that were told on public record. If Snowden did wrong, his actions were a trifle compared to the wrongdoing and corruption within the federal government. At minute 00:10:11, a clip shows Director of National Intelligence James R. Clapper testifying before Congress on March 12, 2013, regarding the NSA’s data collection practices. When asked by Senator Ron Wyden, “Does the NSA collect any type of data at all on millions or hundreds of millions of Americans?” Clapper responded, “No, sir.” Upon further questioning, he added, “Not wittingly. There are cases where they could inadvertently, perhaps, collect, but not wittingly.” Clapper
later stated that he gave the least untruthful answer he could, as the bulk collection of metadata (rather than call content) was classified at the time. Again, it is impossible to make an informed decision to vote or deliberate otherwise without being properly informed. Perjury is a basic immoral principle which undermines one’s ability to assess a situation and act accordingly. Kettl brings up the Rule of Law which holds every member of society accountable under a mutually agreed upon code of regulations—this assures that the government does not overpower the people. Through his leaks, Snowden exposed Clapper’s lie, doing so with a modesty that framed his actions as morally permissible rather than an act of martyrdom.
Snowden had plenty of options when it came to whistleblowing. He could have chosen the dissension tactics of exit, voice, disloyalty, or a combination thereof. Since he remained an employee of Booz Allen but shared confidential information in a public forum, it is quite obvious that a combination of voice and disloyalty had been achieved, the result of which being leaks. He did not take the confidential files and email them out to people or send them to a news outlet or recite them on television or a personal blog. Instead, he used encrypted communications and secure storage to transfer classified documents, later meeting with Glenn Greenwald and Laura Poitras in Hong Kong to facilitate responsible disclosure. He left the
discernment of presentation to the journalists while keeping his personal story to a minimum to avoid bias. If there is a respectful way to break the law, he has accomplished it—though he did not see himself as a criminal, but as a whistleblower acting in the public interest. Being a government contractor does not mean he is any less obligated than a public servant to protect the privacy of the public. A counterargument may be that Snowden was unethical because he failed to uphold his company’s code of ethics. Perhaps it is not he who failed the company but rather the company who has failed him. At minute 01:07:53, Snowden explains that typical NSA employees have access to TS, SI, TK, or Gamma classified documents (or a combination thereof). As a contractor, he held a Top Secret/Sensitive Compartmented Information (TS/SCI) clearance, a designation within the broader Top Secret category. Over 1.4 million individuals held Top
Secret clearance as of 2012, though fewer had SCI access. This included viewing classified intelligence reports and live drone feeds across the globe. While not unique to him, this level of access raised concerns about the extent of classified information available to government contractors compared to full-time NSA employees. This disparity in access challenges the very framework of governmental accountability.
While Snowden did break the law and violate Booz Allen’s ethical code, his actions were justified in pursuit of the greater good. He risked his personal freedom to inform the world about the unjust covert actions of the US federal government and, as a result, spurred a global conversation on privacy issues in regards to advancing technology and terrorism. While some government documents must be kept private for national security, those concerning governmental processes that directly affect citizens should be open to public debate and revision. Bureaucrats, as well as elected officials, are morally fallible. This is why it is imperative that the handful of policymakers, executive actors, and judicial authorities be checked by outside forces—and what better force than a contractor who is being paid and granted express security access to the dirty truth.
Written for Dr. Michele Deegan’s Public Administration at Muhlenberg College.
School
November 28, 2015
Revisiting the Hindu Temple Society expanded my knowledge of Indian religious life in Allentown and addressed important questions that were left unanswered during our last visit only weeks ago. The initial tour was brief and reiterated much of what we learned in class. This second visit was a chance to delve further into the life of Sri Shyam Prasadji and his family, the history of the society, and Indian religious practice in the United States.
I went with a small group of students from class on the night of Sunday, November 15, at 7:00 p.m. We entered the temple from the back, hoping to find community members in congregation for arti—where firelight is offered to deities. To our dismay, no one was in the central room. This was our chance to more carefully observe the room and its adornments.
The edges of the central room have swirled, golden patterns that decorate otherwise off-white walls. The carpet is red and worn, hinting at the many religious observers who have sat for puja in past years. Three shrines dominate the back wall: Hinduism prominently in the center, Jainism to the left, and Sikhism to the right. Buddhism is accounted for, though only a small, white statue of the Buddha sits around the corner from the three main shrines. Hindu gods are decorated with grandiose clothing, flowers, and colors. Shiva, the largest icon, stands to the right of Parvati, his wife—the Hindus of the temple are Shaivas. Other gods such as Ganesha and Hanuman are smaller icons and reside on lower steps under Shiva and Parvati. Each god has an upside-down golden cup hanging above its head, which the priest explained is in regards to showing reverence. The Jain icons, in contrast, are not clothed nor colored. They are polished white with some parts gold. The Sikh shrine, or Gurdwara, has no icons. Instead, it has a framed portrait of Guru Nanak and a pedestal for the Guru Granth.
When Sri Shyam Prasadji entered the room, he greeted us with the utmost respect and hospitality. During our first visit, it seemed that he did not know English very well, but after speaking extensively with us it became apparent that he knew the language well. He called upon his wife and 17-year-old daughter to enter the sacred space with us and gestured for us to sit as he began a short, daily puja. Shyam was dressed in orange—different from the usual white robes of a priest. He explained that all colors, especially in clothing, have meaning beyond their beauty. The orange in his robe represents saffron, which in turn represents both physical and mental strength. The puja he performed was identical to the puja performed upon our last visit. The only noticeable difference was the prasad offered—a banana instead of little orange dough clumps. His daughter (whose name was difficult to transcribe from audio recording) assisted with
the puja by holding a small flame and waving it around the deities.
Each member of our group bathed in the flame when it was offered—however, not all of us partook in receiving a bindi. When asked, Shyam explained that kumkum is the powdered mixture used to make bindis. It is placed over the ajna chakra, otherwise known as the third eye. The kumkum is said to be medicinal and antibacterial, which led to a discussion about Indian medicine and treatment of illnesses. Before moving to that discussion, it is interesting to note that bindis, a symbol of strength, are traditionally worn by women, which points to cultural gender equality. Though many aspects of Indian religions—including the gender of gods—point to patriarchy, this symbol on women offers quite an interesting disparity.
Shyam handed some questions to his daughter and wife when he found them difficult to explain. The next set of questions was about medicine and treatments. Shyam’s daughter, who will be called D, talked about the use of pain killers and other chemicals. She explained that a certain type of doctor—whom I transcribed as an ayurveda doctor—is sought by the Indian community for advice on natural cures. They offer different ways to stay healthy mainly involving the consumption of enriching foods versus fatty foods. Besides sickness, another misfortune requiring treatment is that of inflicted violence. D explained that when violence occurs, the best treatment is meditation. Since meditation involves stillness and inaction, it counteracts violence and pain. Meditation is also used to show respect and reflection for others who have experienced violence such as in acts of terrorism. When D does not have time to meditate or spontaneously
experiences fear or sadness or pain, she relies on the recitation of om. She gave the example of waking up from a bad dream. When she is scared and sits up in bed, repeating the om mantra calms her and gives her strength to overcome fear. Shyam’s eyes lit up as he talked about the importance of om. The syllable O represents the self, M represents the outer world, and H is the transference of energy between the self and the outer world.
Transference of energy is constant. Shyam’s wife, who will be called W, assisted in her family’s description of god. She used a metaphor that beautifully simplifies the abstract idea of god—god is electricity. Electricity itself cannot be seen, but it flows through everything, and can be seen where it is concentrated. When the temple bell is rung, god is called into the shrine figures just as a light switch brings electricity to a bulb. I was humbled by all of the different offerings made to god—in this case, Shiva—during puja. I was curious, however, as to what is offered when certain physical offerings are unavailable such as during travel. Shyam said that Shiva understands when physical offerings cannot be made and he accepts love and reverence in their absence. Shyam’s answer brought up many more deep questions: What is the purpose of existence? Is it love? Shyam, D, and W, all looked at each other upon hearing this question. Shyam then turned to me and said that we exist for
others.
Others have differences and differences, historically, keep people apart. How could we exist, then, for others? This brought up the question of caste, which D took without hesitation. D explained that some Indians marry within their caste because it is simply easier. Members of the Prasadji family’s Brahmin caste, for example, are vegetarians. It makes sense to marry another vegetarian so food utensils are not cross-contaminated with meat products. This answer really opened my eyes to the practical applications of Indian religions. Before, my western ideals led me to think that castes were a facade—a justification for discrimination. Now, I can see the practical side of adhering to certain age-old traditions. There are many misconceptions about the caste system making it out to be a corrupt, separative system. There are also misconceptions about the meanings behind certain
traditions and figures. The bindi, discussed earlier, is often mistaken for a fashion item. Though there are fashionable variations of the bindi worn mostly by younger generations, the bindi has a powerful meaning which goes far beyond beautiful, exotic appearance—which is why it is so often appropriated. When asked about common misconceptions in Hinduism and specifically with Shaivas, both Shyam and D said that people who are not Shaivas often do not entirely understand their god.
Shiva is known as the destroyer god—the thought of destruction is not very welcoming! Though what Shiva destroys, Shyam and D informed me, is evil. Shyam’s family, being Shaivas, believe that Shiva is the destroyer of evil and thus is the most important god. How do they spread this idea to other Hindus? Is it possible to persuade a person raised Vaishnava to the beliefs of a Shaiva? Shyam said that Hindus do not seek converts because it is not instructed in the Vedas. It is difficult to think that a group of people with a shared belief does not have the intention of spreading their ideas upon others, however, in Hinduism, according to Shyam, this is true. I asked how Shyam knows as much as he does and how he is able to so readily recite prayers. He told me that he spent 12 years in India at a school for priests starting at a very young age and by his decision. I then asked if
his jewelry had any significance to a priestly ranking. He said that Hindus believe expensive materials such as gold bracelets or BMWs can bring temporary happiness and that seeking temporary happiness through objects is not shunned.
Shyam enjoys his gold bracelets. He also enjoys dosas, his favorite Indian food. He speaks both Kannada and Tamil—languages of his region of India. D is studying to become a chemistry professor. W assists her husband and the Indian community in Allentown. The Prasadji family moved to America after being called upon to guide the local Indian community. They have been here ever since—leading pujas, religious holidays, and keeping the Hindu Temple Society temple in good, clean shape. Two visits to their beautiful, sacred space have given me and my classmates a glimpse into the practical side of Indian religions—specifically Hinduism—in the United States. While I am still curious about exploring other religions and talking to more practitioners, Sri Shyam Prasadji’s hospitality was very inspiring and I was eager to
investigate his history after our first visit. Though class has taught us about religions of India through text and images, religion is truly a living entity that can only begin to be understood through sensory exploration and human exposure.
Written for Professor Purvi Parikh’s Religions of India at Muhlenberg College.
School
April Littrell